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Necessary Conditions for Causality
Covariation: The cause and effect must be correlated. Temporal Precedence: The cause must precede the effect in time. Internal Validity: There should be no plausible alternative explanations for the observed relationship.
Correlational vs Experimental Studies
Correlational Studies: Observe naturally occurring relationships between variables without manipulation. They can identify associations but cannot establish causality due to potential confounding variables. Experimental Studies: Involve the manipulation of one or more independent variables to observe their effect on a dependent variable. They can establish causality by controlling for confounding variables through random assignment.
Factors Compromising Data Quality
- Representativeness: The extent to which the sample accurately reflects the population.
- Sample Size: Larger samples generally provide more reliable estimates.
- Confounding Variables: Uncontrolled variables that may influence the observed relationship. Can be controlled through random assignment in experiments.